Xin Zhang Aerospace Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK Willem Toet Jonathan Zerihan BAR Honda F1, Brackley NN13 7BD, UK Ground Effect Aerodynamics of Race Cars We review the progress made during the last 30 years on ground effect aerodynamics associated with race cars, in particular open wheel race cars. Ground effect aerodynam- ics of race cars is concerned with generating downforce, principally via low pressure on the surfaces nearest to the ground. The “ground effect” parts of an open wheeled car’s aerodynamics are the most aerodynamically efficient and contribute less drag than that associated with, for example, an upper rear wing.
While drag reduction is an important part of the research, downforce generation plays a greater role in lap time reduction. Aerodynamics plays a vital role in determining speed and acceleration (including longi- tudinal acceleration but principally cornering acceleration), and thus performance. At- tention is paid to wings and diffusers in ground effect and wheel aerodynamics. For the wings and diffusers in ground effect, major physical features are identified and force regimes classified, including the phenomena of downforce enhancement, maximum down- force, and downforce reduction. In particular the role played by force enhancement edge vortices is demonstrated.
Apart from model tests, advances and problems in numerical modeling of ground effect aerodynamics are also reviewed and discussed. This review article cites 89 references. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.2110263兴 1 Introduction 1 Over the past 30 years, the race car industry has become a leader of technology innovation, a training ground for highly qualified engineers, and, for countries such as Britain and Italy, an integral part of the high tech engineering industry. The nature of the industry is such that there is a constant need for performance improvement. Among the various factors which influence the per- formance of a car, such as power, driver, weight, tires and aero- dynamics, aerodynamics represents a major area that a constructor can invest in, investigate, and improve upon on its own 关1–4兴, and hence has received increasing attention in recent years, resulting in greater advances in methods and understanding.
The advance in aerodynamics is partly reflected in the increase in speed. In Fig. 1, the average speed of a Formula 1 car over a race circuit is given, together with annotations on major aerodynamics development and banned technologies. The constant struggle between the regu- lators and the constructors’ desire for speed pushes the frontier of science and reveals new physics, which deserves the rigor of an academic examination.
Aerodynamics, particularly ground effect aerodynamics, as ap- plied to open wheeled race cars is still mainly an experimental science and will remain so for some time to come 关4兴. This is primarily due to the complex fluid flow physics involved. These include • separation as a normal feature • surface character changes during an event lead to early tran- sition • suspension motion leading to unsteady flow • highly complex physics: wall jet, shear layer instability, vor- tex meandering and breakdown, etc.
• force enhancing vortices • turbulent wake and ground boundary layer interaction • compressibility However, computational fluid dynamics 共CFD兲 is becoming much more important and its use complements model scale ex- periments.
This is particularly true in the case of flows around geometries such as a front wing assembly, where the flow could stay attached over the majority of the aerodynamic surface, less so for flows such as that associated with a diffuser, where the incom- ing flow could be highly turbulent and distorted, and large vortex flows are often coupled with flow separation.
Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd. Low speed wind tunnel testing I by Jewel B. Barlow, William H. This is true of all large wind tunnels.24 WIND TUNNELS methods to blend the best of LES with Reynolds Averaged.
The primary aim of race car aerodynamics is to generate a desired level of downforce 共negative lift兲 for the least possible drag. However, the balance of the downforce under all conditions of speed and acceleration is equally important. As such, the com- plex flow features associated with individual components are of- ten interwoven and difficult to separate. Nevertheless, a clear un- derstanding of flow physics connected to individual aerodynamic components is a prerequisite towards gaining an insight into the overall flow field and eventually a better vehicle design. The importance of ground effect aerodynamics is easy to ex- plain.
Given a fixed distance, the average speed of a car deter- mines the time it takes for a car to complete a circuit. However, over a closed circuit, it is the change of velocity, i.e., acceleration, which is the deciding factor in determining the speed performance of the car. The braking, accelerating, and cornering performance of a race car were found in the 1960s to be the limiting factors in deciding a car’s performance 关1兴. The acceleration of a car can be illustrated by a simple expression: Acceleration = g ⫻ max + downforce ⫻ max M 共1兲 where max is the peak coefficient of friction of the tire, M is the mass associated with that tire, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
The simple expression above shows the role of downforce and hence the importance of aerodynamics. Once the role of aero- dynamics was acknowledged around 1966, the advance in race car aerodynamics was rapid and ground effect was introduced in 1977 共see Fig. 1兲. In fact ground effect is unavoidable as a typical race car can be viewed aerodynamically as a very low aspect ratio 共0.38兲 bluff body in close proximity to the ground 共gap/chord =0.005兲.
The results of this review are divided into several sections. Section 2 describes the overall force behavior on a generic race car. Section 3 gives an overview of the tools available to ground effect aerodynamic research. Section 4 discusses aerodynamics of inverted wings in ground effect. Finally, Sec. 6 reviews studies on aerodynamics of wheels in contact with the ground. 1 Wheels are external to the bodywork in plan view. Transmitted by Assoc. Editor W. Shyy. Applied Mechanics Reviews JANUARY 2006, Vol. 59 / 33 Copyright © 2006 by ASME Downloaded 22 Apr 2011 to 152.78.62.148. Redistribution subject to ASME license or copyright; see http://www.asme.org/terms/Terms_Use.cfm
(Redirected from CMS Cameron McKenna Nabarro Olswang)
Headquarters | 78 Cannon Street London EC4N 6AF United Kingdom |
---|---|
No. of offices | 73 |
No. of lawyers | 3500 (2016/17)[1] |
Major practice areas | General practice |
Key people | Penelope Warne (Senior Partner) Stephen Millar (UK Managing Partner)[2] |
Revenue | £1.15 billion (2017)[3] |
Date founded | 1 May 1997 (as partnership) 2 December 2004 (as LLP)[4] (London) |
Company type | Limited liability partnership |
Website | cms.law |
- 2CMS Member Firms
- 2.1CMS Cameron McKenna Nabarro Olswang LLP
CMS[edit]
CMS is one of the largest law firms in the world[5][6] and is structured as a group of preexisting law firms. CMS Legal Services EEIG is a European economic interest grouping of law firms, which was established with the objective to create a professional multi-jurisdictional legal and tax service organisation, headquartered in Europe. CMS currently has 4,500 legal and tax advisers across 74 offices. The organisation's firms are branded with the preface 'CMS' as part of their respective names but remain independent businesses.
The acronym's letters derive from two of the founding firms, Cameron McKenna and Sigle (now CMS Hasche Sigle). The EEIG is organised and managed centrally by an executive committee based in Frankfurt, Germany.[7]
In 2017, CMS was ranked as the law firm with the most FTSE 100 clients, jointly with Slaughter and May.[8]
CMS's expertise is acknowledged in different fields by international rankings. In Chambers & Partners Europe 2018, the following practices are highlighted: 'Banking & Finances' (Band 4), 'Corporate/M&A' (Band 4), 'Dispute Resolution' (Band 3), 'Employment' (Band 2), 'Intellectual Property' (Band 4), 'Life Sciences' (Band 4), 'Private Equity' (Band 4), 'Projects & Energy' (Band 2), 'Real Estate' (Band 3), 'Regulatory: Energy' (Band 1), 'Regulatory: Life Sciences/Pharma' (Band 3), 'Regulatory: TMT' (Band 2), 'Restructuring/Insolvency' (Band 4), 'Tax' (Band 3), 'TMT: Information Technology' (Band 2), 'TMT: Media' (Band 2), and 'TMT: Telecommunications' (Band 2).[9]
CMS Member Firms[edit]
CMS Cameron McKenna Nabarro Olswang LLP[edit]
CMS Cameron McKenna Nabarro Olswang LLP, trading as CMS, is a multinationallaw firm headquartered in London, England. It has over 250 partners and 73 offices across Europe, the Middle East, South America and Asia.
CMS Cameron McKenna Nabarro Olswang LLP is a member of the CMS organisation of law firms.
History[edit]
The origins of the firm date back to 1779 and the law practice of T Hewitt.
In 1997 Cameron Markby Hewitt merged with fellow City of London law firm, McKenna & Co, to form Cameron McKenna (renamed CMS Cameron McKenna in 1999).[10] The firms of Cameron Markby and Hewitt Woollacott & Chown had merged in 1989 to become Cameron Markby Hewitt. Prior to that Cameron Kemm Norden of New Street, London, EC2, off Bishopsgate, merged with Markbys of London Wall, either in 1980 or 1981. After 17 years at Mitre House, near the Barbican, the firm moved into its Cannon Place headquarters in July 2015, situated above Cannon Street Station.
Henry Markby, a name partner in legacy firm Cameron Markby Hewitt, is alluded to (usually in an unflattering manner) in a number of Oscar Wilde's plays, most notably in The Importance of Being Earnest, when Lady Bracknell says that her solicitors are Markby, Markby and Markby.
Markby, who was president of the Law Society of England and Wales in 1887, had fallen out with Wilde, a former friend, for reasons unknown.
The partnership incorporated as a limited liability partnership in 2005.
In January 2006, CMS Cameron McKenna expanded its European presence through the acquisition of the Romanian law firm Hayhurst Robinson.[11]
In December 2013 it was announced that CMS Cameron McKenna would merge with the Edinburgh-headquartered law firm Dundas & Wilson.[12][13] The merger completed on 1 May 2014.[12][13]
In October 2016, CMS Cameron McKenna announced that it would merge with UK law firms Nabarro and Olswang to create the world's sixth largest law firm by headcount. The merger completed in May 2017. CMS Cameron McKenna has been renamed to CMS Cameron McKenna Nabarro Olswang LLP, and will trade under the name CMS.[14]
In 2017, CMS is ranking number 1 for M&A in Europe by deal count by Thomson Reuters and Bloomberg.[15]
Activity[edit]
CMS provides advice across all types of commercial law; banking and finance, competition, corporate and M&A, dispute resolution, employment & pensions, environment, immigration, intellectual property, private equity, public procurement, real estate and tax.
CMS' services are concentrated in eight industry sector groups; consumer products, energy, hotels & leisure, infrastructure & project finance, insurance and funds, lifesciences, real estate & construction, and technology, media & telecommunications.
The firm specialises in the following areas:
- Arbitration
- Banking & Finance
- Corporate and commercial
- Competition & EU
- Employment& Pensions
- Energy
- Infrastructure and Project Finance
- Insurance & Reinsurance
- Intellectual Property
- Real estate and Construction
- Tax
Sector Groups[edit]
The firm also operates along sector lines, focusing on the following industry groups:
- Consumer Products
- Energy
- Financial Services and Institutions – Banks, Insurers, Investment Business and Private Equity
- Hotels & Leisure
- Infrastructure & Project Finance
- Lifesciences
- Real Estate & Construction
- Technology, Media & Telecommunications (TMT)
Offices[edit]
London
CMS, London office located above Cannon Street station is its headquarters. Having moved here in 2015 the office won best fit out of a workplace for London & South East at the BCO Awards 2016.[16]
Scotland
CMS’ second largest office, Edinburgh, has been practising law since 1759, following the combination with Dundas & Wilson in 2014. CMS’ Glasgow office was established in 1991 and has over 60 lawyers. The firm has also had a presence in Aberdeen for over 20 years.
CEE
Established in 1990, CMS has nine offices in Central and Eastern Europe.
Revenue and profitability[edit]
Revenues for the firm increased to €1.01bn (£735.2m) in 2015, up 8.4 per cent on the prior year's €934.5m. Meanwhile, net profits had grown by 6.8 per cent according to City AM.[17]
Notable clients and cases[edit]
Financial Institutions
- Deutsche Bank on a EUR 300m economic guarantee to an Italian life insurer relating to a synthetic fund.
- MetLife on its acquisition of Alico from AIG and CEE operations from Aviva, disposals of UK and Belgian life companies and its subsequent European reorganisation (described by PWC as the ‘largest and most complex European insurance group reorganisation ever undertaken’).
Infrastructure and project finance
- Department for Transport – Advising on a wide range of real estate agreements related to the sale of High Speed 1 (HS1) for GBP 2.1bn and on the Channel Tunnel Rail Link in general which included land acquisitions, leases at St Pancras and agreements with Network Rail
- Metronet/London Underground PPP – Advising on all aspects of its successful bids for the acquisition of two of the infrastructure companies responsible for the upgrade and maintenance of all rolling stock and signalling, stations, track and civil works on 8 of the London Underground lines.
Energy
- EDF Energy Renewables – on the Blyth Offshore Wind Demonstration Project (the largest consented offshore wind testing facility in the UK) near the port of Blyth in Northumberland.
- Repsol – on the sale of Repsol's entire portfolio of offshore wind farms to Chinese state-owned State Development & Investment Corporation (SDIC).
- The Ministry of Energy of Mexico – on the implementation of the Energy Reform passed by the Congress in 2013.
Lifesciences and Healthcare
- Johnson & Johnson on the UK aspects of the sale of its Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics (OCD) business to The Carlyle Group for US$4.15 billion. OCD is a global provider of screening and diagnostics solutions.[buzzword]
- Nestlé Health Science on a complex, cross-jurisdictional licence agreement for exclusive IP rights worldwide (except in Europe and Australia) to Lipid Therapeutics’ LT-02 compound.
Real Estate
- Aberdeen Property Trust on its purchase of one of the largest ever Private Rented Sector blocks of apartments in the UK.
- Imperial College on its Imperial West Campus redevelopment project (one of the largest development projects in London).
TMT
- Hewlett Packard on its multibillion-dollar IT outsource for a global financial institution, of its global data centre provision (with aspects of banking/trading apps transformation and a leading edge cloud solution[buzzword]) in Europe, Asia Pacific, North and South America.
- Telefónica on the EUR 8.55bn takeover of E-plus (Europe's largest TMT transaction of 2013), and advising Telefónica Deutschland on its EUR 1.26bn IPO and EUR 3.62bn rights offering.
- BT Sport on the enforcement of its broadcasting exclusivity for Premier and Champions League games since the inception of those rights packages.
Notable alumni[edit]
- Shailesh Vara, MP, NW Cambridgeshire
- Eilidh Wiseman, president, Law Society of Scotland
- Susan Calman, comedian
CMS Hasche Sigle[edit]
CMS Hasche Sigle is a German law firm and a founding member of CMS.
CMS Francis Lefebvre Avocats[edit]
CMS Francis Lefebvre Avocats is a leading French law firm with offices in Paris, Lyon, Strasbourg, Casablanca (Morocco) and Alger (Algeria).
CMS Adonnino Ascoli & Cavasola Scamoni[edit]
CMS Adonnino Ascoli & Cavasola Scamoni is an Italian law firm, member of CMS.
CMS Albiñana & Suárez de Lezo[edit]
CMS DeBacker SCRL/CVBA[edit]
CMS Derks Star Busmann N.V.[edit]
CMS Rui Pena, Arnaut & Associados RL[edit]
CMS von Erlach Poncet AG[edit]
CMS Reich-Rohrwig Hainz Rechtsanwälte GmbH[edit]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^'CMS breaks €1bn revenue mark with 8.4% rise for 2015'. Legal Week. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
- ^'People'. CMS. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
- ^'CMS ANNOUNCES REVENUE OF EUR 1.3BN FOR 2017'. CMS. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
- ^'CMS CAMERON MCKENNA NABARRO OLSWANG LLP'. Companies House.
- ^'The 2018 Global 100 Ranked by Revenue'. The American Lawyer. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
- ^'The Global 100: the world's top-ranked law firms by revenue, lawyers and partner profits'. Legal Week. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
- ^'Frankfurt (CMS Legal)'. cms.law. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
- ^'Top 10 law firms with the most FTSE 100 clients'. thelawyer.com. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
- ^'CMS, Europe | Chambers Rankings'. chambers.com. Retrieved 7 April 2019.
- ^'Comment and Analysis: Two plus two makes five at Cameron McKenna?'. The Lawyer. 28 July 1998. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
- ^'News and the city: East Europe mergers, offices in Germany and moves to divorce'. Solicitors Journal. 3 February 2006. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
- ^ ab'Dundas and Wilson to merge with London-based CMS'. BBC News. 12 December 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
- ^ ab'CMS Cameron McKenna partners vote yes to Dundas & Wilson takeover'. The Lawyer. 12 December 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
- ^'CMS, Nabarro and Olswang Combine to Create 6th Largest Law Firm in the UK and 6th Largest Globally'. 10 October 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
- ^'CMS most active M&A firm in Europe according to Bloomberg'. CMS Cameron McKenna. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
- ^'Fit Out of Workplace Award'. BCO. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
- ^'Law firm CMS revenues break 1bn mark'. CMS Cameron McKenna. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
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